Frederick, D. A., Forbes, G. B., & Berezovskaya, A. (2008). Female Body Dissatisfaction and Perceptions of the Attractive Female Body in Ghana, the Ukraine, and the United States. Psihologijske Teme / Psychological Topics, 17(2), 203-219.

The big thing in the United Sates, and many Western cultures, is the idea of dieting and working out. There are always advertisements for gyms, new weight-loss medicines, and surgical options. However, in many other cultures, a heavier woman is seen as healthy and more physically attractive. In "Female Body Dissatisfaction and Perceptions of the Attractive Female Body in Ghana, the Ukraine, and the United States", Frederick explains the difference in physical attraction in different cultures. This research was based on the United States and seeing if the Western culture affected the Ukrainian and Ghanaian civilizations. Since these two cultures are non-Western societies and have had contact with Western culture, examining whether or not their ideals were altered was the main focus.

In non-Western cultures, “big is beautiful” is what men and women find attractive. However, in the United States there is the constant pressure and worry of becoming too heavy. The United States was shown to be the most dissatisfied when it comes to their bodies, as predicted. Women and men from the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana participated in this study. The women were told to represent, from figures, their current body, their ideal body, the body of the typical women their age, and the body men find the most physically attractive. The men were told to represent the body men their age find most physically attractive, and the typical body of a woman their age.

The women in the United States desired a thinner body and that the thinner body was the one most attractive to men. The Ukrainian men and women happened to find a body that was in between the thin and heavier figures to be the most ideal. The Ghanaian men and women found the heavier bodies more ideal. The Ghanaian women happened to be the ones that desired a heavier ideal body and experience the least dissatisfaction with their bodies. Even though the Ghanaian culture was consistent with their cultural beliefs, the Ukrainian group seemed to be influenced by the Western culture. The conductor of this research finds it important to construct follow-up studies. 

Diedrichs, P. C., & Lee, C. (2011). Waif goodbye! Average-size female models promote positive body image and appeal to consumers. Psychology & Health, 26(10), 1273-1291. doi:10.1080/08870446.2010.515308

If you have not noticed yet, every person is a different shape and size. So why is the bulk of media exclusively using thin models for their advertisements and fashion shows? In "Waif goodbye! Average-size female models promote positive body image and appeal to consumers", Diedrichs and Lee explain how the use of models of different sizes affect the body image of consumers. This study conducted in Australia at an Australian university attempted to prove and demonstrate that marketing should not only expose the consumers to thin models because of the normal excuse, “thin sells”. Over the years, the average body size has changed. Notice that as the average body size increased, the models used in advertisements became thinner. Now why would media portray a type of body that is not the so-called “norm”?

This study exposed undergraduate students (ages 17-25 years old) to nine different types of advertisements (five were for beauty products and four were for clothing). These advertisements either included thin models, average size models, or no models. The participants gave their feedback on whether or not the advertisement caused their body image to be positive or negative. The participants added any other comments they had as well. What was a very new and distinct addition to this study that had not been done much before was that not only females were questioned. Male students also participated in this experiment to see whether or not males were affected by these advertisements like many females are.

Whether there was an average sized model, thin model, or no model at all, that did not alter the participants’ decision on if they wanted to purchase the product that was being advertised. However, changing the size of the models did affect the body image of the participants. The average sized model relieved the anxious and negative feelings these students had about themselves. In fact, the average sized models brought a positive body image to the students and made them feel better about their own body. So why can’t media incorporate average sized models if it does not alter the purchasing of the product? 

Stanhope, C. (2013). Beauty and the Beast - Can Life Drawing Support Female Students in Challenging Gendered Media Imagery?. International Journal Of Art & Design Education, 32(3), 352-361. doi:10.1111/j.1476-8070.2013.12030.x

There is always so much discussion over how the media and Internet access is going to affect the new generations. What most people may not realize is that even though some may see the social media and ease of access to information as a newer period, adolescents and even children have already been affected. In "Beauty and the Beast- Can Life Drawing Support Female Students in Challenging Gendered Media Imagery?", Stanhope explains how young girls see beauty. Adolescent art schoolgirls, in London, were a part of a life drawing class where they were to draw the naked form of a middle-aged woman. Now the purpose of this research was to see how art was able to challenge major issues. The reactions of these young girls ranged from feeling too uncomfortable to complete the painting, due to seeing a live woman in the nude, to the few girls who were able to get through the class in a mature manner.

A week later the teacher and the all of the girls discussed their reactions to the life drawing class. The students were very aware that the celebrities you see and the models on the huge billboards are not real, they are airbrushed with maybe some surgeries and overall do not portray the “normal” aging of a woman. However, when it came to describing perfection the students seemed to subconsciously describe what the media shows every single day. The media has already affected the younger generations, even children as young as 5 years old are worrying about their looks and weight.

Another point of this article was that women are seen as objects and are sexualized. This is why the author believed the students felt uncomfortable seeing a woman naked, due to the fact that everything is over sexualized to a point of perversion. These young girls know the manipulation that takes place when models and celebrities are photographed or seen in public. However, these girls feel the pressure to achieve these unrealistic goals that the media has set. The author of the article believes that if the young girls start to become more adjusted to seeing how “real” aging women look, then they might be able to understand what is normal and what is unrealistic. 

VARTANIAN, L. R. (2009). WHEN THE BODY DEFINES THE SELF: SELF-CONCEPT CLARITY, INTERNALIZATION, AND BODY IMAGE. Journal Of Social & Clinical Psychology, 28(1), 94-126.

More and more, researchers are looking into the idea of men and their body image. For years people mainly only spoke about women and girls who have eating disorders and are depressed due to their lack in self-esteem and having a negative look on their body. With all of the advertisement out there with male models, studies are now conducted on body image and include the male category in the participant section. In "When the Body Defines the Self: Self-Concept Clarity, Internalization, and Body Image", Vartanian explains how these different concepts and how they may affect behavior. This study in particular looks at both men and women and how internalization predicted body image and dieting concerns, which of course would then predict the behavior of that individual.

Many factors can contribute to the beginning of body image problems and eating disorders but there are also other factors that can help maintain and calm those certain issues. Over 300 individuals, both men and women, were involved in this study. They all participated in an online survey that asked you to rate whether or not you agreed with the statement from a 1 (strongly disagree) to either a 5 or 7 (strongly agree). Some of the statements included “ My beliefs about myself seem to change very frequently”. Questions on self-esteem, statements on societal standards, and many other topics were also included.

The research conducted resulted in a few different results. It was said that women would generally be more concerned with public opinion and more likely to base their self-worth off of their weight due to a low self-esteem. These factors are linked with the suppression of standards society has set when it comes to physical attraction. Self-esteem can either be helpful or harmful to women when it comes to eating disorders. However it was found that with men, they do not have a high measure of dissatisfaction like women do. For men there was no connection between self-esteem and internalization unlike women. However, internalization of societal standards for both men and women were related to body image and dieting concerns.